Pakistan Journal of Geology (PJG)

Journal: Pakistan Journal of Geology (PJG)
Author: Kuma Joshua Ayua, John Mkohol Uzer, Hadiza El-Nur Dongel

This is an open access journal distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License CC BY 4.0, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited

DOI: 10.26480/pjg.02.2025.68.73

This study examines the geoelectric characteristics of topsoil in Lokoja, Nigeria, using Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) to assess soil competence for engineering structures. Resistivity sounding conducted in the study area identified three main curve types: three-layer (A and K type), four-layer (HA, QH and KH), and five-layer (HAK, HKH and QHA). The top layer resistivity within the study area ranges from 11.7 to 2702.7 ohm-m with thickness ranging from 0.15 to 3.85 m. The depth to basement in the study area ranges from 0.6 m to 49.1m with a mean depth of 15.1 m. The analysis classifies the study area into four competency zones based on resistivity values: incompetent (<100 ohm-m), moderately competent (101–350 ohm-m), competent (351–750 ohm-m), and highly competent (>750 ohm-m). The results indicate that the eastern and northeastern regions, which are dominated by clay, have lower resistivity and present geotechnical difficulties such as differential settlement and soil deformation, while the central and western regions, which are underlain by lateritic and sandy formations, have higher resistivity and are appropriate for construction. Areas with thin overburden and shallow basement rock are further identified by depth-to-bedrock data, which correlates with reduced soil competence. The study provides useful suggestions for reducing geotechnical risks and improving infrastructure resilience in Lokoja, while highlighting the significance of geophysical techniques in urban planning and foundation design.

Journal: Pakistan Journal of Geology (PJG)
Author: Robert, Aniedi Udo, Etesin, Usoro Monday and Emaime Uwanta

This is an open access journal distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License CC BY 4.0, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited

DOI: 10.26480/pjg.02.2025.61.67

Alkalinity of surface waters is a measure of the capability of water to neutralize the level of acidity of water. This is really an expression of buffering capacity of water. Alkalinity is important for fish and aquatic life because it protects or buffers against rapid pH changes. Living organisms, especially aquatic life, function best in a pH range of 6.0 to 9.0. Calcium carbonate saturation indices (Langelier) commonly are used to evaluate the scale-forming and scale-dissolving tendencies of water, and is related to alkalinity of water. Higher alkalinity levels in surface waters will buffer acid rain and other acid wastes from anthropogenic activities and prevent pH changes that are harmful to aquatic life. For protection of aquatic life the buffering capacity should be at least 20 mg/L CaCO3. This study aims at the determination of seasonal variations of total alkalinity, total hardness and langelier saturation index of surface waters in Uyo, Ikot Ekpene and Eket , by computer aided potentiometry. From the results of alkalinity determination, it is significant that all the locations have higher than 20 mg/L total alkalinity, that falls within the limit of moderate alkalinity ( 50 mg/L – 160 mg/L ) , as the optimum alkalinity of surface waters for the protection of aquatic life and the surface waters not being negatively impacted by anthropogenic activities going on in these areas. Also, the p H of the surface waters in the studied locations in both seasons were less than 8.3, indicating that the dominant alkalinity was bicarbonate alkalinity. The total hardness determined in the surface waters of the studied locations during both rainy and dry seasons were within the water hardness classification of moderately hard ( 60 – 120 mg/L CaCO3 ) according to United State Geological Survey. The Langelier saturation index of surface waters determined in the study locations in both the rainy and dry seasons were outside the optimum range of – 0.5 to + 0.5, indicating that all the surface waters in the study areas are calcium carbonate dissolving and under -saturated with calcium carbonate, thereby have corrosive potential on metal substrates, also difficult in forming calcium carbonate scales. The seasonal variations in total alkalinity, Langelier saturation index and total hardness in the surface waters from Uyo, Ikot Ekpene and Eket were not significant at P ≤ 0.05.

Journal: Pakistan Journal of Geology (PJG)
Author: Andrew Sunday Oji, Odunyemi Anthony Ademeso, Sunday Olabisi Daramola, Kehinde Ibrahim Adebayo

This is an open access journal distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License CC BY 4.0, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited

DOI: 10.26480/pjg.02.2025.52.60

The study assessed heavy metal concentration and radiological hazards in selected basement rocks from Igarra, used in construction. Twenty rock samples were collected from two quarry sites (Calc-silicate-gneiss and Lamprophyre), Ten (five from each) were then carefully picked and analyzed for natural radioactivity and heavy metal concentrations using X-ray Fluorescence spectrometry (XRF). Standard conversion factors were applied to convert radioactive metals into activity concentrations of radionuclides, and radiological hazard indices were calculated. The mean heavy metal concentrations followed the order: Fe > Cr > Zn > Ni > Pb > Cu > Co > Th > Sn > Ra > As > Cd and Fe>Cr>Zn>Pb>Ni>Cu>Th>Co>Sn>Ra>As>Cd for calc-silicate-gneiss and lamprophyre respectively. The average activity concentrations of 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K varied between 19.34-74.65 Bq/kg, 28.18-195.29 Bq/kg, and 970.3-2115.88 Bq/kg respectively. Lamprophyre had higher activity concentrations and radiological indices, including radium equivalent activity, external and internal hazard indices, gamma representative index, absorbed dose rates, annual effective dose equivalents and excess lifetime cancer risk, compared to Calc-silicate-gneiss. Although both rock types exhibited activity concentrations, gamma indices, and absorbed dose rates and excess lifetime cancer risk (outdoor) above the world average, radium equivalent activity, external and internal hazard indices, annual effective doses and excess lifetime cancer risks (indoor) were within safe levels. The study concludes that while the radiological impact is tolerable, quarry workers might face higher exposure due to elevated outdoor radiation levels. Additionally, some trace metals exceeded Earth’s crust averages, presenting potential toxicity risks if inhaled or ingested. While the rocks are deemed safe for construction, their use in interior decoration is not recommended to avoid potential long-term radiation exposure indoors.

Journal: Pakistan Journal of Geology (PJG)
Author: Khawar Jalil, Dr. Tariq Feroze

This is an open access journal distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License CC BY 4.0, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited

DOI: 10.26480/pjg.02.2025.45.51

Mining is a vital part of Pakistan’s economy, providing essential resources for infrastructure, industry, and exports. However, the sector faces serious challenges such as environmental degradation, lack of regulation, unsafe labor conditions, and minimal community involvement. Responsible mining is no longer just an ideal; it is a necessity for Pakistan’s sustainable future. This paper aims to explore how the country can adopt better mining practices by enforcing environmental safeguards, improving governance, ensuring worker safety, and engaging local communities. By examining global best practices and real-world case studies, this research attempts to highlight practical solutions that Pakistan can implement to transform its mining sector. With growing pressure from environmental activists, policymakers, and international markets, the shift toward responsible mining is inevitable. If Pakistan embraces sustainable mining techniques, invests in cleaner technologies, and holds corporations accountable, the industry can become a driver of long-term economic growth without compromising the health of people or the planet.

Journal: Pakistan Journal of Geology (PJG)
Author: K. I. Adebayo, O. E. Faseki, A. S. Oji, M. A. Saliu, and O. A. Ademeso

This is an open access journal distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License CC BY 4.0, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited

DOI: 10.26480/pjg.02.2025.41.44

Los Angeles (LA) abrasion test is the best known and most widely applied method used to measure abrasion resistance. However, its preparation phase and execution are expensive and time consuming compared to other mechanical aggregate tests. As such, establishing empirical equations to predict LA abrasion from physical and mechanical methods that are simpler and cheaper to execute provides both time and money savings and is useful for forecasting purposes in preliminary studies. This study aims at obtaining empirical relationships between the LA abrasion and other practical aggregate properties such as aggregate impact value (AIV), aggregate crushing value (ACV), unconfined compressive strength (UCS), specific gravity of the calcareous sandstones collected from four different locations in parts of southeastern Nigeria. The rocks’ ACVs and AIVs ranged from 16.34 to 26.29 % and 15.87 to 22.52 % respectively, while the LAAVs varied from 38.62 to 53.1 %. The slake durability index is within the range of 91.1 to 96.7 % and the strength values of the studied rocks fall between 20 to 41 MPa. The correlation plots show that LA abrasion resistance had a very strong linear positive relationship of R2 = 0.98, 0.74 with the ACV, AIV; a moderate positive relationship (R2 = 0.49, 0.50) with porosity, water absorption and an inverse relationship with the UCS (R2 = 0.77), slake durability (R2 = 0.43), dry density (R2 = 0.69) and specific gravity values (R2 = 0.55). Furthermore, the highest correlation coefficient was obtained from the ACV while slake durability recorded the weakest correlation with LA abrasion values. In conclusion, the study suggests that ACV, AIV and UCS tests are the best empirical methods for estimating the LA abrasion value.

Journal: Pakistan Journal of Geology (PJG)
Author: Arshad Ashraf, Naveed Mustafa

This is an open access journal distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License CC BY 4.0, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited

DOI: 10.26480/pjg.01.2025.34.40

Mountain regions are highly vulnerable in the context of soaring water demands owing to rapid urbanization, improved living standards, and climate change, which need immediate attention for sustainable development. The current study evaluated spring concentration in various agro-environments of Pakistan to ensure water security and sustainable development in the country. A total of 0.02 million springs were found throughout various physiographic regions of the country, with roughly 33.5% of them located in the low mountains and 21.8% in the middle mountains. The spring densities were observed to be high in the Azad Jammu and Kashmir (i.e., 0.08 springs/km²) and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province (i.e., 0.04 springs/km²), which may be attributed to substantial rainfall recharge and the presence of fractured rock formations here. The gravelly fans and terraces stretching over 9% of the country area contain about 12% springs with a density of over 0.02 springs/km². The spring density was observed high in the forest class, i.e., 0.08 springs/km², and the rangelands, i.e., about 0.04 springs/km², pointing towards the significance of vegetation cover in sustaining the spring ecosystem. The density of springs was maximum about 0.07 springs/km² in the >1000 mm rainfall zone, while it ranged within 0.01-0.02 springs/km² in other rainfall zones. The spring density exhibited an exponential relationship with the annual rainfall, indicated by an R² value of 0.76, underscoring the importance of rainfall in the formation and maintenance of springs in the region. Spring management requires multifaceted actions focusing both on supply and demand-side solutions, improving groundwater recharge and governance, and efficient water use in the country.

Journal: Pakistan Journal of Geology (PJG)
Author: Taiwo, Tolu A, Olusina, J.O., Hamid-Mosaku, A.I., Abiodun, O.E

This is an open access journal distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License CC BY 4.0, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited

DOI: 10.26480/pjg.01.2025.26.33

Several studies have applied various techniques to model and predict water consumption in urban areas where there is water distribution network (WDN). This study examines the performance of machine learning models for predicting volume of water consumed by urban poor households where there is no WDN. Historical data of daily volume of water consumed was gathered through questionnaires, and integrated with socioeconomic data, weather data, property data and geospatial data. The datasets were passed through Pearson Correlation algorithm to select few features that correlate with the target variable. The selected features were inputted into four predictive models – Multilinear Regression (MLR), Random Forest (RF), Support Vector Regression (SVR), and Artificial Neural Networks (ANN). Three error metrics, Mean Absolute Error (MAE), Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE) and R squared (R2) score, were used to measure the model performances. The models were validated with dataset collected where there is WDN. All four models performed very well during training, as they produced RMSE of 110 litres, 83 litres, 98 litres and 97 litres respectively, and R2 score of 53%, 73%, 52% and 63% respectively. Significance test carried out on the results at 95% confidence level shows that there is no significant difference between model performance where there is WDN and where there is no WDN, which also confirms the validity of the dataset collected where there is no WDN.

Journal: Pakistan Journal of Geology (PJG)
Author: Didei Innocent Sunday and Oki A. Austin

This is an open access journal distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License CC BY 4.0, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited

DOI: 10.26480/pjg.01.2025.20.25

Provenance study of an outcropping unit of the Owelli Sandstone in Anambra basin, Southern Nigeria was carried out. The outcrop was mapped and logged, A total of four unconsolidated samples were collected from the formation that were impregnated with blue epoxy resin before cutting. Each of the samples were prepared following the techniques employed in thin section analysis. Point counting techniques was employed to quantify the various mineral grains. 200 points were counted for each slide that was viewed under the petrographic microscope. The heavy mineral assemblages which includes garnet, epitode and staurolite suggested medium-grade metamorphic source rock whereas tourmaline, rutile and zircon indicates recycled sedimentary source, igneous and metamorphic source rock. More so, the Owelli sandstone is said to be mature. This deduction arises from the average value obtained from ZTR index data which is in the average range of 67%. The study therefore, indicates that the Owelli sandstone are derived from recycled sedimentary rocks that comes from the Abakaliki uplift in the Benue Trough and the metamorphic and plutonic rocks of the Oban Massif Basement Complex.

Journal: Pakistan Journal of Geology (PJG)
Author: Shuaibu A.M, Shehu S Abdulmalik, Okiyi I.M

This is an open access journal distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License CC BY 4.0, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited

DOI: 10.26480/pjg.01.2025.12.19

Thirty-five (35) vertical electrical soundings (VES) were conducted to assess the groundwater potential of Mashiji and its surroundings using the Schlumberger configuration with a maximum current electrode of 100 m and an Ohmega resistivity meter. The data were analyzed using IPI 2win software. The research region is dominated by the HK curve type (20%), followed by the H, HA, and A curve types (60%), and KH, KA, AK, and KA curve types (20%). Groundwater potential aquifer production zones were identified using geoelectric techniques. Weathered and fractured layers make up the majority of the aquifer zones in the research region. The granitic environment of the study area is separated into four subsurface strata, according to the geoelectric sections: top soil, clayey laterite, weathered basement, fractured basement, and, occasionally, fresh basement. These horizons have thicknesses ranging from 0.48 to 1.61 m, 1.55 to 13.7 m, 2.75 to 35.7 m, 12.2 to 75.3 m, and 17.8 to ->7 m, in that order. In a metasediment environment, geoelectric sections revealed that the area is made up of four geoelectric layers: top soil, clayey lateritic soil, quartzite/schist, weathered basement, and, in some cases, fresh basement. The thicknesses of these horizons are 0.40 – 1.34m, 1.7 – 8m, 3.63 – 28m, 4,374 – 34.9m, 4.9 – 59.4m, and 25.2 – 60m. The fractured/overburden geospatial maps of the study area indicated diverse groundwater potentials depending on geological conditions. The weathered and fractured thicknesses in the granite environment range from 2.75 to 35.7 m and 12.2 to 75.3 m, respectively, while in the metasediment environment, the weathered basement thickness is 4.374 to 34.9 m, and the fractured layer thickness varies from 4.9 to 59.4 m.

Journal: Pakistan Journal of Geology (PJG)
Author: Ayodele O. Falade, Olubola Abiola, John O. Amigun

This is an open access journal distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License CC BY 4.0, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited

DOI: 10.26480/pjg.01.2025.05.11

This study integrated amplitude and frequency-based post-stacked seismic attributes to delineate hydrocarbon prospects in the study area. The research aimed to achieve a comprehensive reservoir characterization by utilizing five well log suites, check shot, and seismic data. Two primary lithologies, sand and shale, were delineated from the well log data, and three reservoirs of significant thickness, intersecting the available well logs, were identified. Using synthetic seismograms and check shot data, a seismic-to-well tie was performed, aligning the well logs with the seismic section to facilitate the extraction of horizon time slices corresponding to the tops of the identified reservoirs for seismic attribute analysis. Seismic attributes that are a function of the amplitude (instantaneous amplitude), frequency (instantaneous frequency) and both (amplitude envelope) identified to be a direct hydrocarbon indicator were extracted and used for the analysis to obtain information about the hydrocarbon potential of the field. Horizon time slices for the three reservoirs were generated across all three attribute maps, allowing for the identification of zones indicative of hydrocarbon presence. Areas characterized by high instantaneous amplitude, low instantaneous frequency, and high amplitude envelope were highlighted and encircled as hydrocarbon prospects. The results reveal that the field demonstrates significant hydrocarbon potential based solely on amplitude and frequency-based seismic attributes.