This study was conducted in K-Dere, Rivers State, Nigeria to determine the impact of oil spill contamination on soil and groundwater resources in the area. A total of twelve (12) wells were drilled at random to a depth of 10 m using an auger. The method of soil and groundwater analysis involved visual examination and laboratory analysis. Characterization of soils in the area revealed a predominance of fine and medium grained sand underlain by alternating layers of fine, silt and clayey formations. Soil samples from BH-04, BH-05, BH-06, BH-07, BH-07 and BH-11 have a weak to strong hydrocarbon smell and shows light to heavy sheen. Groundwater in all drilled holes was turbid and encountered at depths from 4.27 to 6.37m. BH-06 has a very strong smell and heavy sheen. Free phase hydrocarbon was also found in BH-06. The chemical concentration of Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons (TPH), Poly Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) and BTEX (Benzene, Toluene, Ethylbenzene, Xylene) were determined from the groundwater samples. TPH ranged from <10µg/l to 222,000µg/l. BH-04, BH-06, BH-07 and BH-11 had TPH concentration above DPR intervention value of 600µg/l for water. Napthalene ranged from <0.3µg/L to 537µg/L. BH-04 and BH-06 had Napthalene concentration above the DPR intervention value of 70µg/L. Anthracene ranged from <0.045µg/L to 40.9µg/L. Only BH-06 exceeded DPR intervention value of 5µg/L. Phenanthrene ranged from <0.066µg/L to 135µg/L. Again, BH-06 exceeded the DPR intervention value of 5µg/L. Fluoranthracene ranged from <0.051µg/L to 14.4µg/L. Only BH-06 exceeded the DPR intervention value of 1µg/L. Benzo (a) anthrancene concentration in the groundwater samples ranged from <0.051µg/L to 3.52µg/L. Again, BH-06 exceeded the DPR intervention value of 1µg/L. Apart from benzene with a concentration of 2.5µg/L and Ethylbenzene with a concentration of 1.11µg/L in BH-06, all other BTEX compounds in groundwater in the area had concentrations <1µg/L and were within DPR intervention values. This result shows that the soils and groundwater in the area are heavily impacted by oil contamination. Groundwater is shallow (up to 0m bgl) and the direction of flow is towards the north-westerly and south-easterly directions. BH-06 which has a high hydraulic head also shows the highest level of soil and groundwater contamination in the area. It is therefore recommended that remediation be carried out in the area to prevent further damage to the soil and groundwater resources in the surrounding areas.

This study is aimed at assessing the hydro-geochemical signatures of groundwater in Okpoko and Environs in Anambra State, Southeastern Nigeria. Fifteen groundwater samples were collected and analyzed for physico-chemical, heavy metals and hydrocarbon content. Heavy metals in groundwater were analyzed using Atomic Absorption Spectrometer. The groundwater analyses revealed that average pH (6.05), Fe (0.68 mg/L) and Ni (0.028 mg/L) values exceeded WHO and NSDWQ guidelines. Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons (TPH) in groundwater were relatively very low and recorded only in BH1 (0.04 mg/L) and BH2 (0.002 mg/L) and below detectable limit for all other sampled boreholes. Piper diagram revealed two hydro-chemical facies: Mg-HCO3 and Ca-HCO3 rich water, while Stiff diagrams confirmed four distinct water types (Ca2+, Mg2+, HCO3; Ca2+, HCO3; Ca2+, Na++K+, Cl-, HCO3; Ca2+, Cl- Class). Gibb’s diagrams revealed that chemical weathering of rock and precipitation are the major influences on the groundwater quality. The various ionic ratios: Mg/Ca (0.56), HCO3/Cl (3.31), (Na + K)/Cl (1.45), Na/K (1.61), Ca/Na (7.0), SO4/Cl (0.67) and CEV (-0.45) suggests the groundwater sources are of inland origin. Groundwater flow direction shows that the area is drained by the Niger River on the western part of the study area.

Changes in wetland area have notable effects on ecosystem processes and services. Forecasts on Land use and Land cover change have become a focal point in managing natural resources and monitoring environmental changes in wetland ecosystem. The Port Harcourt metropolis has witnessed extremely large growth in population in recent times and a proper evaluation would reveal a change in land use and land cover of the study area. Therefore, the model and direction of this change is not properly revealed in the works of art. However, this study was organized to forecast the future pattern of land use/land cover change in the wetland ecosystem of Port-Harcourt metropolis. In furtherance of this study, satellite imageries between 1984-2013 using Remote Sensing techniques as an analytical tools and Geo-referencing properties of 1984, 1999, 2003 and 2013 made up of universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) projection, and datum WGS 84, zone 32 were acquired. The satellite images covering the area were acquired and analyzed using ArcGIS10.0, ERDAS IMAGE 2014 and IDRISI Selva. The Markov transition probability matrix where employed in the study to forecast the future pattern of land use and land cover change in the wetland ecosystem of Port-Harcourt for the given period of 30 years (2023, 2033 and 2043). The study concludes that there will be further loss of wetlands and their resources in the metropolis, if factors contributing to it are not properly checked.

The petrographic analysis of Nagri Formation sandstone based on outcrop study and interpretation of thin sections with special emphasis on the diagenetic history from widely separated areas was accomplished. The calcite concreations, hematite leaching, petrified wood fossils, spheroid weathering, quartz filled joints and the meso scale drag folding has few geological significances. Interpretation of thin sections revealed that the sandstone is lithic arenite and lithic graywackes. The concavo-convex, sutured contacts and muscovite deformations indicates that the compaction of sand under lithostatic stress during early diagenesis. The pore water has widened the intergranular distance in some rocks by dissolving the fractured surfaces of carbonates and other grains, enhancing the concentration of carbonates in water at high pH. On the other hand, the silica dust formation can be attributed to the abrasion of quartz grains during compaction, alteration of feldspar to sericite and overgrowth on quartz by calcite under low pH of solution and pressure solution. The leaching and precipitation of hematite along fractures and thin coating around the grains indicates iron oxides paragenesis from chlorite and biotite in the area. The clay mineral authigenesis includes replacement along the cleaved and fractured feldspar and sericitation. Further elaborations indicate plastic deformations of hydrolytically weak quartz grains and deformations by tectonic upliftment, enhancing the permeability and reservoir quality of sandstone.

The Early Eocene Margalla Hill Limestone is well exposed in core of Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis. A section at Battlian is measured and sampled for paleontological studies, where its lower contact with Patala Formation and upper contact with Chorgali Formation is transitional and conformable. The total observed thickness is 73 meters and 60 samples were collected from bottom to top at different levels, 50 thin sections were studied. 19 species of larger forams including age diagnostic Nummulites mamillatus, Nummulites atacicus, Assilina spinosa, Assilina laminosa, Assilina granulosa, Assilina exponens, Textularia sp., Miliolid sp., Alveoloina pasticillata, Alveolina elliptica, Alveolina ovulum, Quinqueloculina, Discocyclina peruviana, Rotalia trochidiformis, Ranikothalia sindensis, Skeasaria ornata Nodosaria sp., Lockhartia tipper and Dasycladacean algae were also observed. In conclusions, presence of benthic foraminifera indicated that Margala Hill Limestone was deposited in Neotethys warm and shallow marine in the Battlian area Muzaffarabad, whereas early Eocene age is assigned on the basis of benthic foraminifera observed. .

The aim of current research is to confirm early findings of geologists regarding the abundance of frame work mineralogy such as major minerals, rock fragments, accessory minerals, matrix minerals and cement minerals inside rocks by studying their modal analysis in the dwelling of Poonch and Sudhunhoti, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. For this purpose, the samples were first soaked, etched and stained using different chemicals during thin section preparation. Then, the percentage of frame work minerals was counted under petrographic microscope using visual acuity technique. The study indicates that the varieties of quartz (23% to 45%) and feldspar (3% to 13%) minerals are in profusion and their plethora inside the rock declared them major minerals. The rock fragments (29% to 56%) of igneous (Basalts, granite), sedimentary (limestone, dolomite, mudstone, siltstone, sandstone) and metamorphic (marble, schists and other pelites as well as quartzite) origin also exist in prodigious amount and abound inside rocks. The accessory minerals such as biotite (1% to 3%), muscovite (up to 2%), tourmaline (few traces), zircon (1%), chlorite, hornblende, rutile, hematite and pyrite (each with 1% to few traces) with exiguous amount form accessories. The clay minerals and mica (0 to 16%) due to their fine size form the matrix of rocks. The calcite (6% to 18%) and silica (2% to 3%) binds matrix and cementing material inside rocks. Furthermore, stratigraphic sections prepared in the area were helpful in understanding the geology of outcrops.

Nagri Formation, the subject of this study, lies in northeastern part of Kashmir basin, Pakistan along a belt of about 250-kilometer square. The Nagri Formation forms alternate beds of sandstone, claystone and/or mudstone. These are molasse deposits formed during the Himalayan orogeny and are early Pliocene in age. The Formation consists of six sedimentary facies: para-conglomerate (N1) comprised of massive conglomerates with the absence of grading and matrix supported fabric of clayey sand; ortho-conglomerate (N2) are normal graded conglomerates and are poorly sorted having clasts supported fine to very coarse grain matrix; massive sandstone (N3) is composed of medium to coarse sized grains, contains massive sandstone beds and is poorly sorted with scattered pebbles at some locations; cross bedded sandstone (N4) consist of to medium to coarse textured, cross bedded sandstone; parallel laminated sandstone (N5) comprising fine to coarse grained and poorly sorted sandstone beds with thin parallel laminations; and mudstone (N6) comprised of massive claystone’s, siltstones and mudstone that lack any noticeable sedimentary structure. The conglomerates, sandstone and mudstone/siltstone/claystone facies are stacked in ascending order and are deduced as a sequence of channel bar and floodplain or over bank deposits confined to a braided fluvial system.

The tape-compass-clinometer method was used in gauging the thickness of stratigraphic units on topographic bevels by taping the intercepts. The dips of the beds and slope’s inclinations were determined. The appropriate formula was used in the thickness estimation. The graphic columnar section was finally compiled on the Sed. Log 3.0 version to display the geology. The worked example includes the measurement of stratigraphic section of rocks in the District Poonch, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. The study was helpful in understanding the fluvial depositional environment of the Nagri Formation in the region and favours meandering and braided fluvial depositional pattern in continental environment.

The Larger Foraminifera made a major contribution to Paleocene and Eocene biota. The microfacies and diagenetic setting of the Paleocene Lockhart Formation were analyzed in Shah Alla Ditta area, Islamabad. The Lockhart Formation is highly fossiliferous, comprising of thin nodular limestone with interbedded shale/marl. The lower contact is unconformable with Jurassic Samansuk formation while the upper contact is conformable with Margalla Hill Limestone. Rock samples were collected from the field and thin sections were prepared and analyzed under the microscope and on the basis of detailed petrographic study three types of microfacies were identified and interpreted based on Dunham’s textural classification, allochem type, fossil content and sedimentary structures. The microfacies include: LH-MF 1: Foraminiferal Wackestone/Biomicrite Microfacies, LH-MF 2: Algal Foraminiferal Wackestone Microfacies, LH-MF 3: Mixed Bioclastic Mudstone Microfacies. A number of larger benthic foraminifera, and the lack of Planktonic foraminifera in the Lockhart Limestone, indicate shallow to deep water of restricted inner to middle shelf environment of deposition. Larger foraminifera and dasycladacena algae are the two major fossil contents present in the Lockhart Formation. Larger foraminiferal species like Lockhartia hameii and Lockhartia conditi present in the formation confirm the age of Lockhart Limestone as Paleocene. The main diagenetic fabric recognized in the limestone reveals mechanical and chemical compaction, deep burial water pressure, pressure solution and tectonics-related fracturing. The nodularity in the limestone is credited to pressure solution.

In this study integrated approaches combining field study, petrographic analysis and petrophysical analysis has been used to infer the depositional and diagenetic effects on reservoir characteristics. The exposed stratigraphic section of Chorgali Formation at its type locality was logged, sampled and petrophysical analysis of well log data from Fimkassar-02 were carried out. Three microfacies recognized from petrographic studies are: Bioclastic Wackestone-Packstone Microfacies, Mixed Bioclastuc Wackestone-Packstone Microfacies and Larger Foraminiferal Wackestone-Packstone Microfacies. The depositional texture and faunal association suggested that the microfacies represents deposition in a low energy, distally steepened ramp type of setting. Due to the deposition in low energy environment the ratio of lime mud is more than bioclasts as a result the primary pore spaces in the formation are negligible. The analysis further showed that the carbonates of Chorgali Formation was also subjected to various diagenetic changes, mainly showing the compaction, stylolitization, aragonite to calcite transformation (neomorphism), tectonically induced fracturing and calcite veins passing from marine diagenesis to meteoric diagenesis through burial diagenesis. Fracturing due to later tectonic deformation have had a major influence on porosity generation and in some cases fracturing and stylolites together have had an important effect on permeability values. The petrophysical analysis shows that the Eocene Chorgali Formation is very good reservoir with average hydrocarbon saturation of 80 %.