Pakistan Journal of Geology (PJG)

Journal: Pakistan Journal of Geology (PJG)
Author: Arshad Ashraf, Naveed Mustafa

This is an open access journal distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License CC BY 4.0, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited

DOI: 10.26480/pjg.01.2025.34.40

Mountain regions are highly vulnerable in the context of soaring water demands owing to rapid urbanization, improved living standards, and climate change, which need immediate attention for sustainable development. The current study evaluated spring concentration in various agro-environments of Pakistan to ensure water security and sustainable development in the country. A total of 0.02 million springs were found throughout various physiographic regions of the country, with roughly 33.5% of them located in the low mountains and 21.8% in the middle mountains. The spring densities were observed to be high in the Azad Jammu and Kashmir (i.e., 0.08 springs/km²) and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province (i.e., 0.04 springs/km²), which may be attributed to substantial rainfall recharge and the presence of fractured rock formations here. The gravelly fans and terraces stretching over 9% of the country area contain about 12% springs with a density of over 0.02 springs/km². The spring density was observed high in the forest class, i.e., 0.08 springs/km², and the rangelands, i.e., about 0.04 springs/km², pointing towards the significance of vegetation cover in sustaining the spring ecosystem. The density of springs was maximum about 0.07 springs/km² in the >1000 mm rainfall zone, while it ranged within 0.01-0.02 springs/km² in other rainfall zones. The spring density exhibited an exponential relationship with the annual rainfall, indicated by an R² value of 0.76, underscoring the importance of rainfall in the formation and maintenance of springs in the region. Spring management requires multifaceted actions focusing both on supply and demand-side solutions, improving groundwater recharge and governance, and efficient water use in the country.